Explore the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale for Postpartum Support
Did you know a simple 10-question test can reveal hidden struggles behind a new mom's smile? The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) is crucial for spotting postpartum depression, yet 1 in 8 new mothers miss out on the help they need. Created in 1987, this 5-minute questionnaire helps healthcare providers identify depression signs that might be overlooked. Many believe the "baby blues" are short-lived, but postpartum depression can persist, and the EPDS aims to detect it early.
The EPDS assesses emotional and physical symptoms with 10 questions scored from 0 to 3. A score above 12 or 13 indicates possible depression, prompting further evaluation. At Well Roots Counseling in Raleigh, NC, we employ this tool to support mothers facing postpartum challenges. We ensure care begins early, preventing small issues from escalating.
Key Takeaways About The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale
The EPDS screens for postpartum depression in under five minutes using 10 scored questions.
Over 10% of new mothers experience postpartum depression, yet many go untreated without tools like the EPDS.
A score above 12/13 suggests possible depression, but a doctor must confirm the diagnosis and treatment plan.
Well Roots Counseling uses the EPDS to help mothers in Raleigh and beyond access timely mental health support.
The EPDS doesn’t diagnose—it’s a first step toward understanding and addressing maternal mental health needs.
Well Roots Counseling is an online therapy practice that provides online therapy for individual therapy and maternal mental health in Raleigh, North Carolina. We specifically specialize in therapy for women, anxiety symptoms, infertility, postpartum depression, therapy for dads, trauma, and much more.
Understanding the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale
The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) is a tool for identifying emotional challenges in pregnant and postpartum individuals. It's a maternal mental health questionnaire designed to simplify screening. This makes it a quick yet effective way to assess mental health during a critical life stage.
What Is the EPDS?
The EPDS is a maternal mental health questionnaire with 10 questions to evaluate mood and well-being. Each question asks how you've felt over the past week, with answers scored on a 0–3 scale. It typically takes under five minutes to complete, making it perfect for routine checkups. The total score ranges from 0–30, with higher numbers indicating greater distress.
The Purpose Behind the Screening Tool
This tool aids in spotting potential depression early, ensuring timely support. The EPDS questionnaire isn't a diagnosis but a guide for next steps. At Well Roots Counseling, we use these insights to create personalized treatment plans. We address anxiety and connect you with resources for recovery.
Who Should Take the EPDS Assessment?
Pregnant individuals and new parents up to one year post-birth are encouraged to take the EPDS. Only you can complete the questionnaire—it's meant to reflect your own feelings. Healthcare providers often recommend repeat screenings to monitor changes in your mental health over time.
The History and Development of the EPDS
In the 1980s, a team led by John Cox, Jeni Holden, and Ruth Sagovsky developed the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) in Scotland. They aimed to fill a gap in perinatal mental health assessment tools, creating it for postpartum and prenatal care. Their focus was on mothers, addressing how traditional depression tests often misjudged postpartum symptoms like fatigue.
The EPDS was first validated in 1987 among mothers in Edinburgh and Livingston. It consists of a 10-question format, scored from 0–30. Studies showed a score of 12–13 as a reliable indicator of depression risk. By the 2000s, it had become a global standard:
Validated in Spain (2015), Germany (1998), and Greece (2009).
Translated into 60+ languages, including Thai, Norwegian, and Spanish.
Used in 23 countries, supported by studies showing 86% sensitivity in detecting depression.
Today, the EPDS is a trusted tool, refined through decades of research. Its widespread adoption underscores its reliability. If you're considering a perinatal mental health assessment, this tool has been tested across cultures and languages. Ready to explore your options? Schedule your free 20-minute intro session today to learn more about your mental health journey.
Breaking Down the 10 Questions on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale
The EPDS questionnaire assesses mental health in new mothers with 10 questions. It serves as a crucial screening tool for new mothers. Each question focuses on symptoms related to postpartum depression. This helps identify those who need support early on.
Question Categories and Their Significance
Questions are categorized into four areas:
Mood symptoms: e.g., “Have you lost interest in activities?”
Anxiety symptoms: e.g., “Do you feel anxious or worried?”
Cognitive symptoms: e.g., “Do you blame yourself without reason?”
Self-harm risk: e.g., “Have you thought of harming yourself?”
How Each Question Identifies Symptoms
Questions like “Can you laugh and see the funny side of things?” check for anhedonia, a depression symptom. Others examine sleep, guilt, or panic. The final question addresses self-harm thoughts, requiring immediate action.
These questions cover symptoms such as low mood, anxiety, and cognitive changes. They provide a comprehensive view of your mental state.
The Time Frame Referenced in the Assessment
All questions focus on feelings in the past 7 days. This short period captures current emotions, excluding past feelings. For instance, recent feelings of overwhelm are highlighted.
Well Roots Counseling in Raleigh, NC, employs this screening tool for new mothers for tailored care. Understanding these questions prepares you for honest responses, ensuring accurate assessments.
When and How to Complete the EPDS Questionnaire
Effective postpartum depression screening begins with understanding when and how to complete the EPDS. The timing and setting are crucial for accurate results and comfort.
Optimal Timing for Screening
Healthcare providers often administer the EPDS at your 6–8 week postpartum check-up. It's also recommended during pregnancy and at various points in your first year as a parent. The screening tool for new mothers is most effective when integrated into routine care, such as prenatal visits or well-baby appointments. ACOG guidelines suggest using it at least three times: early in pregnancy, later in pregnancy, and during postpartum visits.
Creating a Supportive Environment for Honest Responses
Answer honestly by taking the EPDS in a private, judgment-free space. Many providers offer this in exam rooms, while others use secure virtual options like those at Well Roots Counseling. Providers should explain the tool clearly: “This is part of your overall health check, not a judgment of your parenting.” Avoid distractions like children or loud waiting areas to ensure focus.
How Often to Repeat the Assessment
Don't take the EPDS just once. Mental health changes over time, so repeat it regularly—specifically if you've had symptoms before or face stressors like sleep deprivation. Studies show repeat screenings catch 12.8% of cases missed at first. ACOG advises ongoing checks during pregnancy and postpartum to track shifts in mood. If your first score is low, still repeat it every 3–6 months, as symptoms may appear months after birth.
EPDS Scoring: What Your Results Mean
EPDS scoring ranges from 0 to 3 for each of the 10 questions. Questions 3, 5–10 are scored inversely because they focus on positive emotions. To calculate your score, sum all answers, resulting in a total between 0 and 30. A higher score indicates a greater need for support.
| Score Range | EPDS Interpretation | Action Step |
|---|---|---|
| 0–8 | Minimal symptoms | Continue regular check-ins |
| 9–12 | Possible depression | Monitor closely and follow up |
| 13+ | Probable depression | Seek professional evaluation immediately |
Interpreting EPDS results requires careful attention to question 10, which inquires about self-harm. Even with a low total score, a "yes" response necessitates immediate action. Scores of 13+ suggest major depressive disorder, with 14+ showing 100% sensitivity in studies. Yet, only a licensed professional can confirm a diagnosis.
Total scores reflect symptom severity but don’t replace clinical judgment
Repeat the EPDS every 6–8 weeks for ongoing care
Always discuss results with a healthcare provider for personalized epds interpretation
Your well-being is paramount. If your EPDS scoring reveals elevated numbers, seek professional help. Well Roots Counseling offers expert guidance. Schedule your free 20-minute intro session today to initiate your support plan.
Interpreting EPDS Cutoff Scores in Different Populations
Understanding your EPDS results begins with knowing the appropriate cutoff scores for your unique situation. We'll explore how these scores differ based on your background and the stage of pregnancy or postpartum period.
Standard Cutoff Points for Postpartum Depression
EPDS cutoff scores, such as 11 or higher, are used to identify depressive symptoms. Yet, the correct score varies by situation. For instance:
A score of 13 or higher is often used for postpartum screening to minimize false positives.
A 11 or higher strikes a balance between detecting more cases and maintaining accuracy.
In Cameroon, a cutoff of 11 correctly identified 92.6% of cases. This highlights the importance of location in EPDS interpretation.
Cultural Considerations in EPDS Interpretation
Cultural differences influence how questions are answered. Here's a look at how cutoffs vary worldwide:
| Population | Recommended EPDS Cutoff Score |
|---|---|
| Lithuania | 7 or higher |
| Sri Lanka (Sinhala) | 9 or higher |
| France | 11 or higher |
| Sweden | 12 or higher |
Translations and cultural views on mental health also affect how answers reflect true distress levels.
Scoring Differences for Prenatal vs Postpartum Screening
Pregnancy and postpartum stages require tailored EPDS cutoff scores:
| Group | Average EPDS Score |
|---|---|
| High-risk prenatal women | 15.52 |
| Community prenatal women | 5.10 |
| Postpartum community | 6.54 |
Higher scores in high-risk groups underscore the need for personalized EPDS interpretation. Well Roots Counseling uses these insights to tailor support for your specific situation.
Benefits of Early Screening with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale
Early postpartum depression screening with tools like the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) can significantly improve outcomes for new parents. By completing a maternal mental health questionnaire such as the EPDS, you're not merely fulfilling a requirement. You're actually unlocking access to vital support. Studies indicate that 10-15% of mothers suffer from postpartum depression, yet many remain untreated. Early detection can avert long-term issues like anxiety disorders or relationship problems.
Identifies depression risks before symptoms escalate
Connects parents to resources within weeks of birth
Reduces risks of child behavioral issues later in life
The EPDS's practical application is noteworthy. A score of 13+ on the EPDS signals severe concerns, but even lower scores are significant. Here's how different cutoff points influence care:
| Cutoff Score | Sensitivity | Specificity |
|---|---|---|
| 10 or higher | 85% | 84% |
| 11 or higher | 81% | 88% |
| 13 or higher | 66% | 95% |
These figures highlight the effectiveness of screening, catching 8 out of 10 cases with a score of 10. Beyond numbers, early intervention prevents emotional detachment from your baby and enhances family bonding. Well Roots Counseling leverages EPDS results to craft personalized care plans. They offer virtual therapy and support groups to address issues promptly. Their free 20-minute introductory session allows you to explore options without obligation.
Screening is more than a form—it's your initial step towards recovery. By acting early, you safeguard your mental health and lay a solid foundation for your family's future.
Common Misconceptions About Maternal Mental Health Questionnaires
Tools like the EPDS are crucial for spotting postpartum depression. Yet, myths about maternal mental health assessments can hinder care. Let's debunk three common misconceptions to ensure you're well-informed and supported.
The Difference Between "Baby Blues" and Postpartum Depression
Many confuse the "baby blues" with clinical depression. Here's how to distinguish between them:
| Feature | Baby Blues | Postpartum Depression |
|---|---|---|
| Onset | Occurs 3–4 days after birth | Can start during pregnancy or up to a year later |
| Duration | Resolves within 1–2 weeks | May last months; requires professional help |
| Symptoms | Mood swings, tearfulness | Severe sadness, loss of interest in baby |
Why the EPDS Is Not a Diagnostic Tool
The EPDS is a screening tool, not a diagnostic one. It flags potential issues but doesn't diagnose. Here's what you should know:
It identifies risk but needs follow-up with a healthcare provider for diagnosis
Won't detect all anxiety disorders or personality issues
Results guide next steps, like a full perinatal mental health assessment
Addressing Stigma Around Maternal Mental Health Screening
Many avoid screening due to fears like:
Believing mental health struggles make them a "bad parent"
Worrying about losing custody of their child
Yet, studies show 80% of women with symptoms avoid reporting them. At Well Roots Counseling, we offer judgment-free virtual therapy in Raleigh, NC. Our approach prioritizes your well-being during this life transition.
What to Do After Receiving Your EPDS Results
If your EPDS scoring indicates a need for action, understanding your next steps is crucial. Begin by thoroughly reviewing your Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale results. If you answered anything other than “never” to question 10 about self-harm thoughts, immediate care is imperative. Contact your healthcare provider or seek emergency room assistance without delay—your safety is paramount.
High scores (10 or higher): Arrange an appointment with your healthcare provider within 48 hours. A score of 13 or above typically signals the need for specialized mental health support. Your healthcare provider may recommend therapy, medication, or a referral to a specialist.
Moderate scores (9 or 10): Retake the EPDS in one week. Persistent symptoms or a rising score necessitate follow-up care. Well Roots Counseling offers complimentary 20-minute intro sessions to discuss virtual therapy options.
Low scores (below 9): Monitor your mood weekly. Even low EPDS scores don't exclude depression if symptoms recur. Keeping a journal of your feelings is advisable to share with your provider at your next appointment.
Need support? Well Roots Counseling’s virtual sessions facilitate easy access to trained therapists. For urgent assistance, call the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 800-273-8255. Your mental health is of utmost importance—take action today. Schedule your free intro session to explore treatment options tailored to your specific needs.
How Well Roots Counseling Supports Your Maternal Mental Health Journey
Shana Sobhani
Student Intern and Parenting Coach
After completing the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) or a perinatal mental health assessment, finding the right care is crucial. Well Roots Counseling offers virtual therapy, tailored for parents with hectic schedules. This approach helps overcome common barriers to seeking support. Given that 1 in 4 parents face mental health issues postpartum, their services are a vital bridge from screening to recovery.
Virtual Therapy Options for New Parents
Therapy can be done from home. You can choose from a variety of virtual sessions.
| Benefit | Description |
|---|---|
| Convenience | Join sessions via video call from your couch |
| Flexible Hours | Appointments available early mornings or late nights |
| Child-Friendly | Quiet space not needed—babies can be in the room |
Personalized Care for Your Journey
Well Roots Counseling employs evidence-based treatments, customized to meet your specific needs. They address symptoms such as anxiety, identity shifts, and relationship issues. Their approach includes:
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for changing negative thought patterns
Mindfulness practices to manage stress
Interpersonal therapy to navigate relationship changes
They also cater to partners, recognizing that 33% of fathers experience postpartum depression. Couples therapy is available.
Your Free Intro Session
Begin with a complimentary 20-minute session to:
Discuss your EPDS results or screening outcomes
Ask questions about treatment options
Meet your therapist in a relaxed, no-obligation setting
Whether you're dealing with anxiety, adjusting to parenthood, or healing from trauma, Well Roots Counseling crafts a personalized plan. Their services extend to support for dads, infertility, and trauma, ensuring comprehensive care for the entire family's mental health.
Research-Backed Effectiveness of the EPDS as a Screening Tool
Over 37 studies with 15,557 participants affirm the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) as a dependable tool for maternal mental health. It surpasses general depression assessments, boasting a 95% accuracy at a cutoff score of 11. This precision allows for the correct identification of 85% of cases without causing undue false alarms.
| Scale Version | Area Under the Curve (AUC) |
|---|---|
| Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) | 0.94 |
| EPDS-7 (shortened version) | 0.96 |
| EPDS-20 | 0.90 |
| EPDS-3 | 0.80 |
In Nepal, a study of 346 mothers revealed a 17.1% postpartum depression rate. The Nepalese version of the EPDS showed 92% sensitivity and 95.6% specificity, proving its cross-cultural accuracy. A cutoff of 12/13 here matched clinical diagnoses with 98% accuracy.
India: Cutoff 11/12 (93% specificity)
Pakistan: 13/14 (96% specificity)
Thailand: 10/11 (90% sensitivity)
Well Roots Counseling employs this evidence-based tool to craft customized care plans. Their therapists analyze EPDS results to develop individualized strategies for depression or anxiety. The scale’s high accuracy ensures timely intervention for new parents, preventing symptom escalation.
Conclusion: Taking the First Step Toward Postpartum Wellness
The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) is crucial for spotting symptoms early. Yet, your real journey begins with taking action. Even if your EPDS scores indicate a low risk, don't overlook persistent sadness or anxiety. Suicide is the leading cause of maternal death postpartum, and timely intervention can be life-saving.
Over 17% of mothers suffer from major depression, yet many cases remain undetected. At Well Roots Counseling, we offer a free 20-minute intro session to help you understand your results and explore support options. Our virtual therapy services are designed to meet your specific needs. Don't wait—schedule your session or discuss your concerns with your healthcare provider. Your mental health is worth the effort to improve.
Recovery begins with seeking help. At Well Roots Counseling, we provide specialized care, and our free intro session is here to guide you toward healing. Remember, postpartum depression affects 1 in 6 women, and early intervention significantly improves outcomes. Trust your instincts and take the next step today.
Frequently Asked Questions The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale
What is the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS)?
The EPDS is a 10-question tool designed to spot possible depression in pregnant women and new moms. It helps tell apart normal "baby blues" from postpartum depression.
How does the EPDS support maternal mental health?
Using the EPDS early is key for both mom and baby's health. It leads to quicker help, better results, and support for moms.
Who should take the EPDS assessment?
Women in pregnancy and up to a year after giving birth should take the EPDS. Remember, only the mother can fill it out, not partners or support persons.
When is the best time to administer the EPDS?
It's often given at the 6-week postpartum check-up. But it's also useful during pregnancy and at various times in the first year after birth.
How long does it take to complete the EPDS?
It takes under 5 minutes to finish the EPDS. This makes it quick and easy for mothers to complete.
How is the EPDS scored and what do the scores mean?
The EPDS scores range from 0-30, with each question worth 0-3 points. Higher scores mean more depression symptoms. Specific ranges suggest different levels of concern.
What are the standard cutoff scores for EPDS interpretation?
Scores under 9 mean little symptoms. Scores of 9-12 suggest possible depression needing watch. Scores of 13 or higher indicate probable depression, needing a mental health check.
Can cultural factors influence EPDS responses?
Yes, cultural views on mental health and distress can shape EPDS answers. Different cultures might have different best cutoff scores.
What should I do if I get a high score on the EPDS?
If your score is 9 or above, talk about it with your healthcare provider. For a score of 13 or higher, see a mental health expert.
How does Well Roots Counseling use the EPDS?
Well Roots Counseling uses the EPDS in their online therapy for moms with postpartum mood issues. They offer mental health care tailored for new parents.
Why is early detection of postpartum depression important?
Early detection leads to quicker help, preventing severe depression. It also reduces risks to mom and baby's health.
Is the EPDS diagnostic?
No, the EPDS is a screening tool, not a diagnostic tool. It shows the need for more assessment, not a definitive diagnosis.
What resources are available for individuals struggling with maternal mental health?
Resources like Well Roots Counseling offer specialized support through online therapy. This makes it easier for new moms to get help at home.
How can I benefit from a free introductory session at Well Roots Counseling?
The free 20-minute session lets you discuss your concerns and learn about treatment options. It helps you see if the therapist is right for you.
Source Links
PDF - https://med.stanford.edu/content/dam/sm/ppc/documents/DBP/EDPS_text_added.pdf
Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale: How Does It Work? - https://www.healthline.com/health/depression/edinburgh-postnatal-depression-scale
Using the EPDS to Measure Postpartum Depression Severity - MGH Center for Women's Mental Health - https://womensmentalhealth.org/posts/using-epds-measure-postpartum-depression-severity/
Reliability and validity of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) for detecting perinatal common mental disorders (PCMDs) among women in low-and lower-middle-income countries: a systematic review - https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4820998/
Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale - https://hfs.illinois.gov/medicalproviders/maternalandchildhealth/edinburgh.html
Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh_Postnatal_Depression_Scale
Thirty years with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale: voices from the past and recommendations for the future - PubMed - https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30774059/
Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale for Postpartum Depression: Three Items Better Than Ten - MGH Center for Women's Mental Health - https://womensmentalhealth.org/posts/edinburgh-postnatal-depression-scale-postpartum-depression-three-items-better-ten/
Using the EPDS as a screening tool - COPE - https://www.cope.org.au/health-professionals/health-professionals-3/calculating-score-epds/
The factor structure of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale among perinatal high-risk and community samples in London - https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8784492/
Using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale to Screen for Antenatal Depression: Once is Not Enough - MGH Center for Women's Mental Health - https://womensmentalhealth.org/posts/using-the-edinburgh-postnatal-depression-scale-to-screen-for-antenatal-depression-once-is-not-enough/
Patient Screening - https://www.acog.org/programs/perinatal-mental-health/patient-screening
Early identification of women at risk of postpartum depression using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) in a sample of Lebanese women - BMC Psychiatry - https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-014-0242-7
Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Screening Tool | Texas Children's - https://www.texaschildrens.org/departments/obstetrics-and-gynecology/edinburgh-postpartum-depression-screening-tool
Screening for depressive symptoms - PMC - https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3135441/
Validation of the Edinburgh postnatal depression scale and prevalence of depression among adolescent mothers in a Cameroonian context - Scientific Reports - https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-79370-7
Validation of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale against both DSM-5 and ICD-10 diagnostic criteria for depression - BMC Psychiatry - https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-018-1965-7
Accuracy of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) for screening to detect major depression among pregnant and postpartum women: systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data - https://www.bmj.com/content/371/bmj.m4022
In the Shadows of Motherhood: A Comprehensive Review of Postpartum Depression Screening and Intervention Practices - https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10944300/
Consensus Bundle on Maternal Mental Health: Perinatal Depression and Anxiety - https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5957550/
Thirty years with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale: voices from the past and recommendations for the future | The British Journal of Psychiatry | Cambridge Core - https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/thirty-years-with-the-edinburgh-postnatal-depression-scale-voices-from-the-past-and-recommendations-for-the-future/B22C1AF432691C13E96E48988758D939
Busting 5 Myths About Postpartum Depression - https://www.futureofpersonalhealth.com/maternal-health/busting-5-myths-about-postpartum-depression/
Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) - https://rightdecisions.scot.nhs.uk/mental-health-in-pregnancy-and-after-birth-sign/recommendations-for-health-and-social-care-professionals/questionnaires-and-scoring-tools/edinburgh-postnatal-depression-scale-epds/
Understanding your Edinburgh depression screening results - Ovia Health - https://www.oviahealth.com/guide/107254/pep-parenting-education-epds-results-explained/
Perinatal Depression - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519070/
A Complete Guide to Supporting Maternal Mental Health | Therapy in Raleigh, North Carolina - https://www.wellrootscounseling.com/blog/a-complete-guide-to-supporting-maternal-mental-health
How the U.S. Is Failing Moms on Maternal Mental Health Care - https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-fainting-couch/202308/how-the-us-is-failing-moms-on-maternal-mental-health-care
A systematic review of studies validating the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale in antepartum and postpartum women - Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE): Quality-assessed Reviews - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK77136/
Accuracy of Brief Screening Tools for Identifying Postpartum Depression Among Adolescent Mothers - https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3876181/
Validating the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale as a screening tool for postpartum depression in Kathmandu, Nepal - International Journal of Mental Health Systems - https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-016-0102-6
The Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale: Stable structure but subscale of limited value to detect anxiety - https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6733480/
Digital screening for postnatal depression: mixed methods proof-of-concept study - BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth - https://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12884-022-04756-2